Negotiated Access, Limited Compliance: ICRC Humanitarian Diplomacy in Sudan (2023-2025)
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.22303/pir.11.2.2026.164-175Keywords:
humanitarian diplomacy, International Committee of the Red Cross, Sudan, international humanitarian law, humanitarian accessAbstract
Humanitarian diplomacy is widely credited with securing access to civilians in war, yet its capacity to constrain the conduct of belligerents remains poorly specified. Existing scholarship tends to treat the exercise of humanitarian diplomacy and its effectiveness as a single continuum, conflating diplomatic activity with humanitarian effect. Drawing on the case of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) in Sudan between 2023 and 2025, this study argues that the reach of humanitarian diplomacy is bounded less by diplomatic skill than by belligerent consent. Through a structured analysis of public ICRC sources, organised around six established humanitarian diplomacy activities, the analysis shows that these activities secured operational access, yet did not produce compliance with international humanitarian law (IHL). The finding indicates that norm promotion and norm compliance are analytically separable and can move independently. The study contributes an explanatory refinement to the concept of humanitarian diplomacy, distinguishing its exercise from its efficacy and identifying the permission structure of armed actors as the decisive scope condition governing outcomes of humanitarian diplomacy.
References
[1] Acuto, Michele. (2014). Negotiating Relief : the Politics of Humanitarian Space. Hurst & Company.
[2] Afifi, A. A., Al-Hadrami, S., & Eliza, M. (2025). Humanitarian and Beyond States Diplomacy: Society as an Emerging Global Actor. Perwakilan: Journal of Good Governance, Diplomacy, Customary Institutionalization and Social Networks, 3(1), 163–170. https://doi.org/10.58764/j.prwkl.2025.3.102
[3] Al-Suhaibani, S. B. H. (2020). Humanitarian Diplomacy in Times of Crises. International Journal for Humanitarian Studies, 1(1), 23–44. https://doi.org/10.4103/IJHS_20200101_23
[4] Bakry, U. S. (2019). Metode Penelitian Hubungan Internasional. Pustaka Pelajar.
[5] Barakat, S. (2024). Niche small States in humanitarian diplomacy: Qatar’s positionality in the protection ecosystem. International Review of the Red Cross, 106(926), 585–609. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1816383124000602
[6] Bogatyreva, O. (2022). Humanitarian Diplomacy: Modern Concepts and Approaches. Herald of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 92(S14), S1349–S1366. https://doi.org/10.1134/S1019331622200047
[7] Chin, L., Govindasamy, G., & Akhir Md, Md. N. (2023). Humanitarian Diplomacy and Its Origins in Non-State Actors’ Diplomacy. Hong Kong Journal of Social Sciences, 60(No. 60 Autumn/Winter 2022). https://doi.org/10.55463/hkjss.issn.1021-3619.60.13
[8] Creswell, J. W., & Clark, V. L. P. (2017). Designing and Conducting Mixed Methods Research . Designing and Conducting Mixed Methods Research .
[9] Eko Nurfahmi. (2017). Keterbatasan International Committee of The Red Cross (ICRC) dalam Mengatasi Krisis Kemanusiaan di Suriah. JILS (Journal of International and Local Studies), 1(1), 31–42. https://doi.org/10.56326/jils.v1i1.721
[10] Firli, V. (2021). ANALISIS MOTIF IDEALISME BANTUAN INTERNASIONAL ICRC PADA KRISIS KEMANUSIAAN DI SOMALIA (2011-2016). Jurnal PIR : Power in International Relations, 6(1), 14. https://doi.org/10.22303/pir.6.1.2021.14-32
[11] Harroff-Tavel, M. (2005). The humanitarian diplomacy of the International Committee of the Red Cross. Relations Internationales, n° 121(1), 73–89. https://doi.org/10.3917/ri.121.0073
[12] Humanitarian Outcomes. (2023). Humanitarian Access SCORE Report: Sudan Survey on the Coverage, Operational Reach, and Effectiveness of Humanitarian Aid. https://humanitarianoutcomes.org/sites/default/files/publications/score_sudan_2023.pdf
ICRC. (2023a, May 12). Sudan: Humanitarian needs soar one month on; SRCS & ICRC welcome parties’ public commitment to adhere to international humanitarian law. https://www.icrc.org/en/document/sudan-humanitarian-needs-soar-srcs-icrc-welcome-parties-public-commitment-adhere-to-international-humanitarian-law
[13] ICRC. (2023b, June 14). Sudan: Relief as ICRC evacuates 300 children “towards safety, away from the sounds of gunfire.” https://www.icrc.org/en/document/sudan-relief-icrc-evacuates-300-children
[14] ICRC. (2023c, August 14). Sudan: Facts & Figures April to August 2023. https://www.icrc.org/en/document/sudan-facts-figures-april-august-2023
[15] ICRC. (2024a). About the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC). https://www.icrc.org/en/about-international-committee-red-cross-icrc
[16] ICRC. (2024b, February 19). Sudan: 2023 Facts and Figures. https://www.icrc.org/en/document/sudan-2023-facts-and-figures
[17] ICRC. (2024c, November 6). Sudan: ICRC President calls for greater humanitarian space and respect of international humanitarian law. https://www.icrc.org/en/news-release/sudan-icrc-president-calls-greater-humanitarian-space-and-respect-ihl
[18] ICRC. (2025a). International Committee of the Red Cross . Facebook. https://www.facebook.com/ICRC
[19] ICRC. (2025b). “WE HAVE NOTHING TO GO BACK TO” – TWO YEARS OF DEVASTATION IN SUDAN. https://www.icrc.org/en/article/sudan-facts-and-figures-january-june-2025
[20] ICRC. (2025c, January 27). Sudan: Attacks on critical civilian infrastructure surge amid escalating fighting. https://www.icrc.org/en/news-release/sudan-attacks-critical-civilian-infrastructure-amid-escalating-fighting
[21] ICRC. (2025d, March 25). Sudan: Facts and Figures 2024. https://www.icrc.org/en/article/Sudan-fact-and-figures-2024
[22] ICRC. (2025e, April 14). Sudan: ICRC president warns of dire consequences if war in Sudan rages unabated for third year. https://www.icrc.org/en/news-release/sudan-icrc-president-warns-dire-consequences-if-war-sudan-rages-unabated-third-year
[23] ICRC. (2025f, August 8). Sudan faces health crisis as conflict devastates medical infrastructure. https://www.icrc.org/en/news-release/sudan-faces-health-crisis-conflict-devastates-medical-infrastructure
[24] ICRC. (2025g, August 25). Sudan: January to June 2025 Facts & Figures. https://www.icrc.org/en/article/sudan-facts-and-figures-january-june-2025
[25] ICRC. (2026, March 5). Sudan: January to December 2025 Facts and Figures. https://www.icrc.org/en/article/sudan-january-december-2025-facts-and-figures
IFRC. (2023, September 20). IFRC Secretary General statement at UNGA High-level Ministerial Side event on Sudan. https://www.ifrc.org/speech/ifrc-secretary-general-statement-unga-high-level-ministerial-side-event-sudan
[26] Lefolle, J., & Nikolic, J. (2023, June 15). Armed conflict in Sudan: a recap of the basic IHL rules applicable in non-international armed conflicts. Humanitarian Law and Policy. https://blogs.icrc.org/law-and-policy/2023/06/15/armed-conflict-sudan-ihl-rules-applicable-non-international-armed-conflicts/
[27] Prayuda, R., Syafrana, R., Sundari, R., & Shiddiqy, M. A. A. (2024). Resolusi Konflik Internasional: Studi Kasus Konflik Bersenjata Sipil antara Sudan Armed Forces (SAF) dan Rapid Support Force (RSF) di Sudan. Andalas Journal of International Studies (AJIS), 13(2), 211. https://doi.org/10.25077/ajis.13.2.211-222.2024
[28] Rafika, H. (2015). Peran International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) dalam mengatasi masalah kemanusiaan di Aceh tahun 2004-2006. JOM FISIP, 2(2). https://share.google/lAzB2BJ0FnmfXshHT
[29] Rahmad, Y. J. (2019). PERAN INTERNATIONAL COMMITTEE OF RED CROSS (ICRC) MENANGANI KORBAN KONFLIK BERSENJATA INTERNASIONAL DI AFGHANISTAN TAHUN 2013-2016. EJournal Ilmu Hubungan Internasional, 7. https://ejournal.hi.fisip-unmul.ac.id/site/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/eJournal%20Yessi%20Juniar%20Rahmad%201302045106%20(03-04-19-03-54-04).pdf
[30] Régnier, P. (2011). The emerging concept of humanitarian diplomacy: identification of a community of practice and prospects for international recognition. International Review of the Red Cross, 93(884), 1211–1237. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1816383112000574
[31] Roeder, Larry Winter, & Simard, A. (2013). Diplomacy and Negotiation for Humanitarian NGOs. Springer New York. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-7113-4
[32] Saferworld. (2025). Women building peace in Sudan. https://www.saferworld-global.org/resources/publications/1463-women-building-peace-in-sudan?__cf_chl_f_tk=90fa_ARgx.OG37NwSwZXEGbd7yBgbTfR9hwcs7dGlfQ-1782958799-1.0.1.1-ZujdTwo0V7.3gJak_vGcYK9nVT.E4AGmJ.ax88v_Teo
[33] Slim, H. (2019). Humanitarian Diplomacy: The ICRC’s Neutral and Impartial Advocacy in Armed Conflicts. Ethics & International Affairs, 33(1), 67–77. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0892679418000904
[34] Syafira, S. (2023). PERAN INTERNATIONAL COMMITTEE OF THE RED CROSS (ICRC) DALAM MENANGANI KRISIS KEMANUSIAAN DI SUDAN SELATAN TAHUN 2016-2019. JOM FISIP, 10(1). https://share.google/Ggj6s1jWgdClwGqwU
[33] Tétrault-Farber, G. (2024, April 12). UN refugee chief says Sudanese refugees may head to Europe if aid not provided. https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/time-running-out-war-torn-sudan-access-aid-restricted-who-warns-2024-04-12/
[33] Turunen, S. (2020). Humanitarian diplomatic practices. The Hague Journal of Diplomacy, 15(4), 459–487. https://doi.org/10.1163/1871191X-BJA10008
[37] UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. (2025, January 23). Sudan: Humanitarian Needs and Response Plan 2025 - Overview. https://reliefweb.int/report/sudan/sudan-humanitarian-needs-and-response-plan-2025-overview
[38] Wahiduddin, W. (2020). Konflik Sudan dan Jatuhnya Rezim Omar Bashir. Nady Al-Adab, 17(1), 50. https://doi.org/10.20956/jna.v17i1.10086
[39] World Health Organization. (2025). Public Health Situation Analysis (PHSA): Sudan. https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/2021-dha-docs/20250310_phsa_sudan-conflict.pdf?sfvrsn=d1b69fc1_3&download=true
